a consequence primarily of this

As a consequence primarily of this perceived pollution risk, incineration of plastic is less prevalent than landfill and mechanical recycling as a waste-management strategy. In terms of energy use, recycling has been shown to save more energy than that produced by energy recovery even when including the energy used to collect, transport and re-process the plastic (Morris 1996). Quaternary recycling is energy recovery, energy from waste or valorization. Product design for recycling has strong potential to assist in such recycling efforts. Prevention and minimization and environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, E-Waste Recycling In India Bridging The Gap Between The Informal And Formal Sector, Waste plastic extruder: literature review 1 Polymer Properties Table Polymer Properties, Manage E-Waste for Sustainable Development, TWENTY-EIGHT NATIONAL CONVENTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS AND NATONAL SEMINAR ON Role of Infrastructure for Sustainable Development A-18 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE MANAGEMENT -A CASE STUDY OF PUNE, HOUSEHOLD PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE BOLGATANGA MUNICIPALITY.pdf, Recycling of industrial waste and its impact on the environmental quality costs, Ten Year Municipal Ecological Solid Waste Management Plan (CYs 2010-2020) for Camaligan, Camarines Sur, Philippines, 10 Yr. Municipal Ecological Solid Waste Management Plan (Revised) for the Municipality of Camaligan, Camarines Sur, Philippines, The Effect of Inconvenience of Recycling and the Importance of Recycling toward Recycling Behavior, Laws That Enable Partnerships: The Case of Proyecto Pensilvania in Bogot, Colombia, Economic Feasibility of Recycling Programs, Review of extended producer responsibility: A case study approach, THE MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRONIC WASTE: A COMPARITIVE STUDY ON INDIA AND SWITZERLAND. It is possible to include biodegradable plastics in aerobic composting, or by anaerobic digestion with methane capture for energy use. 2007). can be used to reduce landfill volumes, but does not reduce the demand for fossil fuels (as the waste plastic was made from petrochemicals; Garforth et al. A study carried out in the UK found that the amount of packaging in a regular shopping basket that, even if collected, cannot be effectively recycled, ranged from 21 to 40% (Local Government Association (UK) 2007). Broadly speaking, waste plastics are recovered when they are diverted from landfills or littering. Biodegradable plastics can also be composted, and this is a further example of tertiary recycling, and is also described as organic or biological recycling (see Song et al. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> Fundamentally, high levels of recycling, as with reduction in use, reuse and repair or re-manufacturing can allow for a given level of product service with lower material inputs than would otherwise be required. Extended producer responsibility can also be enacted through deposit-refund schemes, covering for example, beverage containers, batteries and vehicle tyres. So, while over a decade ago recycling of plastics without subsidies was mostly only viable from post-industrial waste, or in locations where the cost of alternative forms of disposal were high, it is increasingly now viable on a much broader geographic scale, and for post-consumer waste. 2009; Gregory 2009; Oehlmann et al. government site. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies endobj j`0:D::24j0>aS#5zYTdq5S0hW6W,( 8 d32` yK-lR9{ (9Hg1pE-1p@UM0 j This is not surprising as it is effectively reversing the energy-intensive polymerization previously carried out during plastic manufacture. These trends are likely to continue, but some significant challenges still exist from both technological factors and from economic or social behaviour issues relating to the collection of recyclable wastes, and substitution for virgin material. 0 An average net reduction of 1.45 tonnes of CO2-e per tonne of recycled plastic has been estimated as a useful guideline to policy (ACRR 2004), one basis for this value appears to have been a German life-cycle analysis (LCA) study (Patel et al. A recent LCA specifically for PET bottle manufacture calculated that use of 100 per cent recycled PET instead of 100 per cent virgin PET would reduce the full life-cycle emissions from 446 to 327 g CO2 per bottle, resulting in a 27 per cent relative reduction in emissions (WRAP 2008e). |]}R|O1PpO#\#G93uv^CJohst\YK yWU6@Vnsm^[ h-2] In addition, because of the durability of the polymers involved, substantial quantities of discarded end-of-life plastics are accumulating as debris in landfills and in natural habitats worldwide. FOIA 1Eco Products Agency, 166 Park Street, Fitzroy North 3068, Australia, 2Nextek Ltd, Level 3, 1 Quality Court, Chancery Lane, London WC2A 1HR, UK. Approximately 50 per cent of plastics are used for single-use disposable applications, such as packaging, agricultural films and disposable consumer items, between 20 and 25% for long-term infrastructure such as pipes, cable coatings and structural materials, and the remainder for durable consumer applications with intermediate lifespan, such as in electronic goods, furniture, vehicles, etc. In some instances recovered plastic that is not suitable for recycling into the prior application is used to make a new plastic product displacing all, or a proportion of virgin polymer resinthis can also be considered as primary recycling. % The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the A case study of Kathmandu. globally (Andrady 2003). Many plastic recycling facilities use trommels and density-based air-classification systems to remove small amounts of flexibles such as some films and labels. In the UK, total use of plastics in both domestic and commercial packaging is about 40 kg per person per year, hence it forms approximately 78% by weight, but a larger proportion by volume of the MSW stream (Waste Watch 2003). In the UK, producer responsibility was enacted through a scheme for generating and trading packaging recovery notes, plus more recently a landfill levy to fund a range of waste reduction activities. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> Automated pre-sorting is usually sufficient to result in a plastics stream separate from glass, metals and paper (other than when attached, e.g. 2000) and so in order to achieve high overall recycling rates, post-consumer as well as post-industrial waste need to be collected and recycled. Recycling of plastics is one method for reducing environmental impact and resource depletion. substitution of heavy packaging formats with lighter ones, or downgauging of packaging). PMC legacy view This technology has been proven for rPET from clear bottles (WRAP 2008b), and more recently rHDPE from milk bottles (WRAP 2006). This is a large topic that cannot be covered in this paper, except to note that it is desirable that compostable and degradable plastics are appropriately labelled and used in ways that complement, rather than compromise waste-management schemes (see Song et al. Marketing studies of consumer preferences indicate that there is a significant, but not overwhelming proportion of people who value environmental values in their purchasing patterns. New approaches such as laser-sorting systems can be used to remove other impurities such as silicones and nylon. In the UK, dramatic increases in collection of the plastic bottle waste stream was only apparent after the relatively recent implementation of kerbside recycling (figure2). The low weight-to-volume ratio of films and plastic bags also makes it less economically viable to invest in the necessary collection and sorting facilities. For example, a small amount of PVC contaminant present in a PET recycle stream will degrade the recycled PET resin owing to evolution of hydrochloric acid gas from the PVC at a higher temperature required to melt and reprocess PET. 191 0 obj <> endobj However, the latter plant was closed in 1999 (Aguado et al. 11 0 obj The site is secure. The most efficient collection scheme can vary with locality, type of dwellings (houses or large multi-apartment buildings) and the type of sorting facilities available. The plastics industry has developed considerably since the invention of various routes for the production of polymers from petrochemical sources. Automatic sorting of containers is now widely used by material recovery facility operators and also by many plastic recycling facilities. endobj Around 4 per cent of annual petroleum production is converted directly into plastics from petrochemical feedstock (British Plastics Federation 2008). Many local authorities and some supermarkets in the UK operate bring banks, or even reverse-vending machines. A., Moloney C. L.2009, Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment, Structuring policy problems for plastics, the environment and human health: reflections from the UK, PET waste management by chemical recycling: a review, Song J. H., Murphy R. J., Narayan R., Davies G. B. H.2009, Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics, Degradable polymers and plastics in landfill sites, Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife, Thompson R. C., Swan S. H., Moore C. J., vom Saal F. S.2009a, Thompson R. C., Moore C. J., vom Saal F. S., Swan S. H.2009b, Plastics, the environment and human health: current consensus and future trends, Flakes-to-resin (FTR)recycling with FDA approval, Eco-efficiency: creating more value with less impact, Container deposits: the common sense approach v.2.1, WRAP food grade HDPE recycling process: commercial feasibility study, Annual local authorities Plastics Collection Survey 2007, Domestic mixed plastics packaging: waste management options, Large-scale demonstration of viability of recycled PET (rPET) in retail packaging, LCA of management options for mixed waste plastics, Local authorities Plastics Collection Survey, Study reveals carbon impact of bottling Australian wine in the UK in PET and glass bottles, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, Plastics, the environment and human health, http://www.bpf.co.uk/Oil_Consumption.aspx, http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/strategy/factsheets/landfilltax.htm, http://www.ephc.gov.au/ephc/plastic_bags.html, http://www.environ.ie/en/Environment/Waste/PlasticBags, http://www.grrn.org/beverage/refillables/Europe.html, http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=ODkwMQ, http://www.wrap.org.uk/retail/case_studies_research/rpet_retail.html, http://www.wrap.org.uk/wrap_corporate/news/study_reveals_carbon.html, high with natural HDPE bottles, but more complex for opaque bottles and trays because of wide variety of grades and colour and mixtures with LDPE and PP, poor recovery because of cross-contamination with PET, poor recovery rates, mostly as mixed polyolefins that can have sufficient properties for some applications. about navigating our updated article layout. Plastic materials can be recycled in a variety of ways and the ease of recycling varies among polymer type, package design and product type. Once material enters the waste stream, recycling is the process of using recovered material to manufacture a new product. 2009). We will focus on production and disposal of packaging as this is the largest single source of waste plastics in Europe and represents an area of considerable recent expansion in recycling initiatives. Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight and durable materials, which can readily be moulded into a variety of products that find use in a wide range of applications. The latest generation of wash plants use only 23 m3 of water per tonne of material, about one-half of that of previous equipment. High disposal costs are an economic incentive towards either recycling or energy recovery. manufacture into a re-usable container, which once entering the waste stream is collected and recycled into a durable application that when becoming waste in its turn, is recovered for energy. 2004). The price of virgin plastic is influenced by the price of oil, which is the principle feedstock for plastic production. Landfill is the conventional approach to waste management, but space for landfills is becoming scarce in some countries. endstream endobj 192 0 obj <>>> endobj 193 0 obj <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC/ImageI]/Properties<>/Shading<>/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/Thumb 107 0 R/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 612.0 792.0]/Type/Page>> endobj 194 0 obj <>stream 9 0 obj <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> The goals should be to maximize both the volume and quality of recycled resins. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Even degradable plastics may persist for a considerable time depending on local environmental factors, as rates of degradation depend on physical factors, such as levels of ultraviolet light exposure, oxygen and temperature (Swift & Wiles 2004), while biodegradable plastics require the presence of suitable micro-organisms. The latter point is particularly enhanced by technologies for turning recovered plastic into food grade polymer by removing contaminationsupporting closed-loop recycling. Accessibility The new PMC design is here! HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help These systems generally use Fourier-transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy for polymer type analysis and also use optical colour recognition camera systems to sort the streams into clear and coloured fractions. If recycled plastics are used to produce goods that would otherwise have been made from new (virgin) polymer, this will directly reduce oil usage and emissions of greenhouse gases associated with the production of the virgin polymer (less the emissions owing to the recycling activities themselves). These systems are likely to significantly improve the ability to separate complex mixtures as they can perform up to 860 000 spectra s1 and can scan each individual flake. 2009b). See, Barnes D. K. A., Galgani F., Thompson R. C., Barlaz M.2009, Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments, Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW) 2005, Department of Environment and Heritage (Australia) 2008, Department of Environment Heritage and Local Government (Ireland) 2007, Drelich J., Payne J., Kim T., Miller J.1998, Selective froth floatation of PVC from PVC/PET mixtures for the plastics recycling industry, Better management of municipal waste will reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Ideally, the plastic waste stream for reprocessing would also consist of a narrow range of polymer grades to reduce the difficulty of replacing virgin resin directly. Tertiary recycling is either described as chemical or feedstock recycling and applies when the polymer is de-polymerized to its chemical constituents (Fisher 2003). Collection of used plastics from households is more economical in suburbs where the population density is sufficiently high to achieve economies of scale. Waste electrical and electronic equipment management and Basel Convention compliance in Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) nations, Industrial and Urban Waste Management in India, Economic viability analysis of a construction and demolition recycling plant in Portugal - part I: location, materials, technology and economic analysis, Potential Benefits of Introducing Integrated Solid Waste Management Approach in Developing Countries: A Case Study in Kathmandu City. For PET flake, thermal kilns can be used to selectively degrade minor amounts of PVC impurities, as PVC turns black on heating, enabling colour-sorting. :"!D:%`V$UYLP1)H) " ""AQ( I jegIJD\QF( E:W2-yNg`u[X0w 7~#pzA!kMZO&+z]S `MQ` ,1wr fYuI>3tovkZ_2fy{ 9rO ]}yJzLk?D .Rcz0tjtk\uj!`UI_5;PF+:%~Y\:%U\CW gJB^yLu!YJvDpnu(aQ:Lk]}zo,}k|Cm:U{=dq,bl7-cO5tyrTuDmb11 MQ,!YfGvwJJ,O,z874UG It has been estimated that PET bottle recycling gives a net benefit in greenhouse gas emissions of 1.5 tonnes of CO2-e per tonne of recycled PET (Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW) 2005) as well as reduction in landfill and net energy consumption. One contribution of 15 to a Theme Issue Plastics, the environment and human health. Most current material recovery facilities have difficulty handling flexible plastic packaging because of the different handling characteristics of rigid packaging. This has encouraged local authorities to organize collection of recyclables, encouraged some manufacturers to develop products with recycled content, and other businesses to supply this public demand. Although, it should be noted that the ability to maintain whatever residual level of material input, plus the energy inputs and the effects of external impacts on ecosystems will decide the ultimate sustainability of the overall system. endobj Recycling is clearly a waste-management strategy, but it can also be seen as one current example of implementing the concept of industrial ecology, whereas in a natural ecosystem there are no wastes but only products (Frosch & Gallopoulos 1989; McDonough & Braungart 2002). Mixed plastics, the least favourable source of recycled polymer could still provide a net benefit of the vicinity of 0.5 tonnes of CO2-e per tonne of recycled product (WRAP 2008c). Technological advances in recycling can improve the economics in two main waysby decreasing the cost of recycling (productivity/efficiency improvements) and by closing the gap between the value of recycled resin and virgin resin. PET resin can be broken down by glycolysis, methanolysis or hydrolysis, for example to make unsaturated polyester resins (Sinha et al. As a consequence, the production of plastics has increased markedly over the last 60 years. Sink/float separation in water can effectively separate polyolefins (PP, HDPE, L/LLDPE) from PVC, PET and PS. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Hence, it is often not technically feasible to add recovered plastic to virgin polymer without decreasing at least some quality attributes of the virgin plastic such as colour, clarity or mechanical properties such as impact strength. Learn more Laser-sorting uses emission spectroscopy to differentiate polymer types. Incineration can be used with recovery of some of the energy content in the plastic. Garforth A., Ali S., Hernandez-Martinez J., Akah A.2004, Production, distribution, and fate of polycholorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and related organohalogens in the environment, Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settingsentanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions, Western Europe's experience with refillable beverage containers, Biodegradation of agricultural plastic films: a critical review, Use of froth flotation to separate PVC/PET mixtures, Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make things, Recycling versus incineration: an energy conservation analysis, Report to the NEPC on the implementation of the National Environment Protection (used packaging materials) measure for New South Wales, A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife, PVC removal from mixed plastics by triboelectrostatic separation, Patel M., von Thienen N., Jochem E., Worrell E.2000, A life cycle assessment of mechanical and feedstock recycling options for management of plastic packaging wastes, Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry, The compelling facts about Plastics 2007: an analysis of plastics production, demand and recovery for 2007 in Europe, Plastic waste management in construction: technological and institutional issues, Ryan P. G., Moore C. J., van Franeker J. 2005) and these find greater positive environmental benefits for mechanical recycling over landfill and incineration with energy recovery. Innovations in recycling technologies over the last decade include increasingly reliable detectors and sophisticated decision and recognition software that collectively increase the accuracy and productivity of automatic sortingfor example current FT-NIR detectors can operate for up to 8000 h between faults in the detectors. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> Before Lack of information about the availability of recycled plastics, its quality and suitability for specific applications, can also act as a disincentive to use recycled material. Costs of landfill vary considerably among regions according to the underlying geology and land-use patterns and can influence the viability of recycling as an alternative disposal route. Careers, plastics recycling, plastic packaging, environmental impacts, waste management, chemical recycling, energy recovery, Good practices guide on waste plastics recycling, Aguado J., Serrano D. P., San Miguel G.2007, European trends in the feedstock recycling of plastic wastes, Assessment of environmental biodegradation of synthetic polymers, Applications and societal benefits of plastics, An analysis of plastics consumption and recovery in Europe, Life cycle assessment of a plastic packaging recycling system, Recycling of polymeric materials used for food packaging: current status and perspectives, Standard guide to development of ASTM standards relating to recycling and use of recycled plastics, British Plastics Federation. For example, if rigid plastic containers ranging from bottles, jars to trays were all PET, HDPE and PP, without clear PVC or PS, which are problematic to sort from co-mingled recyclables, then all rigid plastic packaging could be collected and sorted to make recycled resins with minimal cross-contamination. Hence, wider implementation of policies to promote the use of environmental design principles by industry could have a large impact on recycling performance, increasing the proportion of packaging that can economically be collected and diverted from landfill (see Shaxson et al. For example, PVC and halogenated additives are typically present in mixed plastic waste leading to the risk of dioxins, other polychlorinated biphenyls and furans being released into the environment (Gilpin et al. Forty years ago, re-use of post-consumer packaging in the form of glass bottles and jars was common. In addition, labels and adhesive materials should be selected to maximize recycling performance. '%KWTrY$ However, current levels of their usage and disposal generate several environmental problems. Sorting of co-mingled rigid recyclables occurs by both automatic and manual methods. Terminology for plastics recycling is complex and sometimes confusing because of the wide range of recycling and recovery activities (table2). endobj 6 0 obj Chemical recycling of PET has been more successful, as de-polymerization under milder conditions is possible. Most types of plastics are not biodegradable (Andrady 1994), and are in fact extremely durable, and therefore the majority of polymers manufactured today will persist for at least decades, and probably for centuries if not millennia. Growth in collection of plastic bottles, by bring and kerbside schemes in the UK (WRAP 2008d). Most post-consumer flexible packaging not recovered, not widely recycled yet from post-consumer, but has potential. xXsFf&o+Q8%%igrD!OH Pi;I{}tX#&nT~ 6L:MHF7GeN% 13 0 obj 2009b). Other sorting technologies include X-ray detection, which is used for separation of PVC containers, which are 59 per cent chlorine by weight and so can be easily distinguished (Arvanitoyannis & Bosnea 2001; Fisher 2003). Innovative technologies for the removal of organics and surface contaminants from flakes include dry-cleaning, which cleans surfaces through friction without using water. The volumes of post-consumer waste are, however, up to five times larger than those generated in commerce and industry (Patel et al. ~oq%bRSAdG,f'HBw b vC(Y*:8 . - The ability to substitute recycled plastic for virgin polymer generally depends on the purity of the recovered plastic feed and the property requirements of the plastic product to be made. Downgrading is a term sometimes used for recycling when recovered plastic is put into an application that would not typically use virgin polymere.g. Therefore, degradation rates vary considerably between landfills, terrestrial and marine environments (Kyrikou & Briassoulis 2007). Here, we briefly set recycling into context against other waste-reduction strategies, namely reduction in material use through downgauging or product reuse, the use of alternative biodegradable materials and energy recovery as fuel. Post-consumer plastic waste generation across the European Union (EU) was 24.6 million tonnes in 2007 (PlasticsEurope 2008b). %PDF-1.6 % will also be available for a limited time. Rates of mechanical recycling and energy recovery as waste-management strategies for plastics waste in European nations (PlasticsEurope 2008b). In rural areas bring schemes where the public deliver their own waste for recycling, for example when they visit a nearby town, are considered more cost-effective than kerbside collection. Take-back and refilling schemes do exist in several European countries (Institute for Local Self-Reliance 2002), including PET bottles as well as glass, but they are elsewhere generally considered a niche activity for local businesses rather than a realistic large-scale strategy to reduce packaging waste. A model of plastics recycling: does recycling reduce the amount of waste? However, it can also be argued that use of lightweight plastics can reduce usage of fossil fuels, for example in transport applications when plastics replace heavier conventional materials such as steel (Andrady & Neal 2009; Thompson et al. Recycling is one of the most important actions currently available to reduce these impacts and represents one of the most dynamic areas in the plastics industry today. endobj in removing labels from PET flakes. Recycling of this non-bottle packaging has become possible because of improvements in sorting and washing technologies and emerging markets for the recyclates. hUYo8+|l^:(0 ulYVfm2eH"$;f]99!99%\"Op"#2Zp" @Z(Q0G$NP.&q Plastics have substantial benefits in terms of their low weight, durability and lower cost relative to many other material types (Andrady & Neal 2009; Thompson et al. Closed-loop recycling is most practical when the polymer constituent can be (i) effectively separated from sources of contamination and (ii) stabilized against degradation during reprocessing and subsequent use. <>/Border[0 0 0]/P 3 0 R>> In order to have successful recycling of mixed plastics, high-performance sorting of the input materials needs to be performed to ensure that plastic types are separated to high levels of purity; there is, however, a need for the further development of endmarkets for each polymer recyclate stream. For such customers, confirmation of recycled content and suitability for recycling of the packaging can be a positive attribute, while exaggerated claims for recyclability (where the recyclability is potential, rather than actual) can reduce consumer confidence. The effectiveness of post-consumer packaging recycling could be dramatically increased if the diversity of materials were to be rationalized to a subset of current usage. Recycling of a wider range of post-consumer plastic packaging, together with waste plastics from consumer goods and ELVs will further enable improvement in recovery rates of plastic waste and diversion from landfills. In Japan, for example, the excavation that is necessary for landfill is expensive because of the hard nature of the underlying volcanic bedrock; while in the Netherlands it is costly because of permeability from the sea. 14 0 obj 2009; Ryan et al. For this reason, it is important to develop effective on-the-go and office recycling collection schemes if overall collection rates for plastic packaging are to increase. 0 4 0 obj Liquefaction to diesel fuel or gasification through pyrolysis is also possible (Arvanitoyannis & Bosnea 2001) and interest in this approach to produce diesel fuel is increasing, presumably owing to rising oil prices. Advances in technologies and systems for the collection, sorting and reprocessing of recyclable plastics are creating new opportunities for recycling, and with the combined actions of the public, industry and governments it may be possible to divert the majority of plastic waste from landfills to recycling over the next decades. This principle is, however, offset against aesthetics, convenience and marketing benefits that can lead to over-use of packaging, as well as the effect of existing investment in tooling and production process, which can also result in excessive packaging of some products. 1021 0 obj <>stream Thermoplastic resins constitute around two-thirds of this production and their usage is growing at about 5 per cent p.a. endobj This subsequently led Germany to set-up legislation for extended producer responsibility that resulted in the die Grne Punkt (Green Dot) scheme to implement recovery and recycling of packaging. 2009). However, the mixed plastics recycling scenario still has a positive net benefit, which was considered superior to the other options studied, of both landfills and energy recovery as solid refuse fuel, so long as there is substitution of virgin polymer. 2009b). 2009; Thompson et al. 2008. 2008). These systems also have the capability to separate polymer by type or grade and can also separate polyolefinic materials such as PP from HDPE. Hence, the general trend is for collection of recyclable materials through kerbside collection alongside MSW. Other separation techniques such as air elutriation can also be used for removing low-density films from denser ground plastics (Chandra & Roy 2007), e.g. BqD?S. An official website of the United States government.

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